How do I perform array operations on J classes? - j

I'm playing around with J's object-orientation facilities. Consider the following extremely contrived code:
coclass 'Object'
create =: 3 : 'state =: 0'
increment =: 3 : 'state =: state + y'
destroy =: codestroy
cocurrent 'base'
objects =: (0 conew 'Object') , (0 conew 'Object') , 0 conew 'Object'
Let's say I want to call the increment method on each of the objects in the objects array. How do I do this in a J-tastic kind of way? The only way I could come up with was an intermediate verb:
o_increment =: 4 : 0
for_o. y do.
increment__o x
end.
)
3 o_increment objects
This works but is not very convenient. Is there a better way?

Because object references are a part of J's morphology, rather than syntax, they're harder to manipulate at run-time than other data. That is, object references are baked into names, rather than specified as free parameters.
So, there's two ways invoke a method on an array of objects, and both require explicit code. The first way — rarely used except in unusual circumstances — is to generate and then execute strings representing the fully-qualified name, including a direct (explicit) locative.
3 apply&>~ 'increment_' ,L:0 objects ,&.> '_'
Much more common is to use an indirect reference in an explicit code block, using one of the pre-defined local variables as the locative. For example:
3 dyad def 'increment__y x'"0 objects
or, equivalently:
incrementObjs =: dyad define
increment__x y
)
objects incrementsObjs"0] 3
In fact, JSoftware made a major backwards-compatibility-breaking change to the language in version 6 specifically to make this pattern more convenient. Previously (i.e. prior to v6), you would have had to write something like:
incrementObjs =: dyad define
o =. x. NB. x and y used to be spelled x. and y.
increment__o y NB. but increment__x. would raise an error
)
In any case, note that this incrementsObjs"0 objects reformulation of your explicit for_o. objects do. loop is actually not specific to OOP at all; it's the standard automation of iteration provided by J's array-oriented nature.
Which leads me to the real answer to your question: J is fundamentally an array-oriented language, and its objects are usually coarser-grained than they are in more familiar languages like Java or C#.
In those languages, it's common to have a collection of objects; in J, it's more common to have an object of collections. That is, the objects in mainstream OOP languages are "small", in some sense. In J, objects are large, because all data in J is large (I don't mean this in the physical "big data", GB sense: I mean it in a conceptual, philosophical, ℕ sense).
Therefore the actual most common way to express your problem:
coclass 'Object'
create =: 3 : 'state =: 0'
increment =: 3 : 'state =: state + y'
destroy =: codestroy
cocurrent 'base'
objects =: 'Object' conew 0 0 0
Note that last line there objects =: 'Object' conew 0 0 0; the original was
objects =: (0 conew 'Object') , (0 conew 'Object') , 0 conew 'Object'.
That is: rather than an array of 3 objects, we created one object, with an array of 3 values.
Note also that that's the only line of code I changed. The "refactoring" to go from an object handling scalar values to one managing an array of any number of values took zero bytes of code-changes.
But what about incrementing all the objects? Before, you had to say:
3 dyad def 'increment__y x'"0 objects
Now, you only need say:
increment__objects 3
And that's why this is the standard approach to OOP in J 1.
1 Well, a cynic might say that J's fundamental array nature in some way obviates or even conflicts with the aims of OOP, and that the OO features available in J were bolted-on as an afterthought during the ascendence of OOP in the late 90s coughPerlcough, but I'm no cynic. At least not publicly.
OOP has its place in J, especially for organizing large components in a dynamic system; it's used applied differently than in language whose fundamental philosophy is OO, rather than AO.

inl_z_ =: (cocurrent#] ".#] [)"1 0
allows you to run code in 1 or a list of objects
'state =: >: state' inl objects
To disagree with Dan, J is actually fantastic at dealing with lists of objects with this function. You can obviously prefilter the list in objects prior to calling the code. Search for inlC (and inlA) in mailing list for more advanced uses of inl such as interacting with caller locale parameters.
To agree with Dan, making an object has to have a good reason compared to the alternative of having a list of the would-be properties (and then a table of all of the record instances). One good reason tends to be that there are resources to allocate and free

Related

Why doesn't simple integer counterexample occur in Alloy?

I am trying to model a relationship between a numeric variable and a boolean variable, in which if the numeric variable is in a certain range then the boolean variable will change value. I'm new to Alloy, and am having trouble understanding how to constrain my scope sufficiently to yield the obvious counterexample. My code is as follows:
open util/boolean
one sig Object {
discrete : one Bool,
integer : one Int
}
fact { all o : Object | o.integer > 0 and o.integer < 10 }
fact { all o : Object | o.integer > 5 iff o.discrete = False }
assert discreteCondition { all o : Object | o.discrete = True }
check discreteCondition for 1000
Since o.integer is integer-values and ranges from 0 to 10, it could only be one of 10 different choices. And I specified that each Object should only have one integer and one discrete. So it seems reasonable to me that there are really only 10 cases to check here: one case for each value of integer. And yet even with 1000 cases, I get
No counterexample found.
If I remove the integer variable and related facts then it does find the counterexample almost immediately. I have also tried using other solvers and increasing various depth and memory values in the Options, but this did not help, so clearly my code is at fault.
How can I limit my scope to make Alloy find the counterexample (by iterating over possible values of the integer)? Thanks!
By default, the bitwidth used to represent integers is 4 so only integer in the range [-8,7] are considered during the instance generation, and so, due to integer overflows, your first fact is void (as 10 is outside this range).
To fix the problem, increase the bitwidth used to at least 5:
check discreteCondition for 10 but 5 Int.
Note that a scope of 1000 does not mean that you consider 1000 case in your analysis. The scope is the maximum number of atoms present in the generated instance, typed after a given signature. In your case you have only one signature with multiplicity one. So analyzing your model with a scope of 1 or 10000 doesn't change anything. There'll still be only one Object atom in the instance generated.
You might want to check this Q/A to learn more about scopes Specifying A Scope for Sig in Alloy

Is there a programming language which allows the redefinition of numbers?

My first stab at this problem was in C
#define 2 5
assert(2+2 == 10);
Unfortunately
error: macro name must be an identifier
I also tried Scheme
(define 2 5)
but
can't define a non-symbol: (define 2 5)
I was wondering if there are any programming languages where this is possible.
I sincerely hope not.
But that said, I do know of a way in Java: you can use reflection to adjust the values of the cached boxed Integers: a JVM must cache all values in the range -128 to +127, and there does exist a mechanism to adjust the numeric values in that cache!
See https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/questions/28786/write-a-program-that-makes-2-2-5/28818#28818 for more details. Here's the code in full:
import java.lang.reflect.Field;
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
Class cache = Integer.class.getDeclaredClasses()[0];
Field c = cache.getDeclaredField("cache");
c.setAccessible(true);
Integer[] array = (Integer[]) c.get(cache);
array[132] = array[133];
System.out.printf("%d", 2 + 2);
}
}
The output is 5, essentially achieved by redefining the number 4.
I remembered hearing a story about this long ago, and today I decided to follow-up on it. That follow-up lead me to this question which unfortunately isn't exactly answered. This isn't exactly an answer, either, but ... here ya go.
I believe this can be done with early Fortran compilers.
From that post (which is a copy of an original post to comp.lang.python which I haven't been able to track-down):
> subroutine munge (i)
> i = 3
> return
>and then in your main program did:
> j = 7
> call munge (7)
> write (6, 11) j
> 11 format ('j = ', i6)
>it would print 3!
The reason seems to be due to a combination of:
Constant interning
Fortran's pass-by-reference semantics
The compiler interns the constant value (7) and then calls the munge function with a pointer to the interned "constant" 7. The munge function changes the value of the passed-by-reference integer value and so now the interned constant value is 3.
So, this won't universally change the value of 7 to 3 across the whole program, but anywhere that interned "constant" value is used will now be using 3 as its numeric value.
This can be extraordinarily surprising (and rightly so, IMO) to younger programmers who have only dealt with languages whose arguments are almost always passed by value (unless otherwise specified). C, C++, C#, Erlang, Java, javascript, Perl, Python, Ruby, etc. all use pass-by-value. For those languages, pass-by-reference semantics are achieved either using encapsulation (e.g. passing a mutable complex type such as an object) or explicitly passing a pointer to a value instead of the value (e.g. using the & operator in C and similar languages).

Python, perplexity about "is" operator on integers [duplicate]

Why does the following behave unexpectedly in Python?
>>> a = 256
>>> b = 256
>>> a is b
True # This is an expected result
>>> a = 257
>>> b = 257
>>> a is b
False # What happened here? Why is this False?
>>> 257 is 257
True # Yet the literal numbers compare properly
I am using Python 2.5.2. Trying some different versions of Python, it appears that Python 2.3.3 shows the above behaviour between 99 and 100.
Based on the above, I can hypothesize that Python is internally implemented such that "small" integers are stored in a different way than larger integers and the is operator can tell the difference. Why the leaky abstraction? What is a better way of comparing two arbitrary objects to see whether they are the same when I don't know in advance whether they are numbers or not?
Take a look at this:
>>> a = 256
>>> b = 256
>>> id(a) == id(b)
True
>>> a = 257
>>> b = 257
>>> id(a) == id(b)
False
Here's what I found in the documentation for "Plain Integer Objects":
The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers between -5 and 256. When you create an int in that range you actually just get back a reference to the existing object.
So, integers 256 are identical, but 257 are not. This is a CPython implementation detail, and not guaranteed for other Python implementations.
Python's “is” operator behaves unexpectedly with integers?
In summary - let me emphasize: Do not use is to compare integers.
This isn't behavior you should have any expectations about.
Instead, use == and != to compare for equality and inequality, respectively. For example:
>>> a = 1000
>>> a == 1000 # Test integers like this,
True
>>> a != 5000 # or this!
True
>>> a is 1000 # Don't do this! - Don't use `is` to test integers!!
False
Explanation
To know this, you need to know the following.
First, what does is do? It is a comparison operator. From the documentation:
The operators is and is not test for object identity: x is y is true
if and only if x and y are the same object. x is not y yields the
inverse truth value.
And so the following are equivalent.
>>> a is b
>>> id(a) == id(b)
From the documentation:
id
Return the “identity” of an object. This is an integer (or long
integer) which is guaranteed to be unique and constant for this object
during its lifetime. Two objects with non-overlapping lifetimes may
have the same id() value.
Note that the fact that the id of an object in CPython (the reference implementation of Python) is the location in memory is an implementation detail. Other implementations of Python (such as Jython or IronPython) could easily have a different implementation for id.
So what is the use-case for is? PEP8 describes:
Comparisons to singletons like None should always be done with is or
is not, never the equality operators.
The Question
You ask, and state, the following question (with code):
Why does the following behave unexpectedly in Python?
>>> a = 256
>>> b = 256
>>> a is b
True # This is an expected result
It is not an expected result. Why is it expected? It only means that the integers valued at 256 referenced by both a and b are the same instance of integer. Integers are immutable in Python, thus they cannot change. This should have no impact on any code. It should not be expected. It is merely an implementation detail.
But perhaps we should be glad that there is not a new separate instance in memory every time we state a value equals 256.
>>> a = 257
>>> b = 257
>>> a is b
False # What happened here? Why is this False?
Looks like we now have two separate instances of integers with the value of 257 in memory. Since integers are immutable, this wastes memory. Let's hope we're not wasting a lot of it. We're probably not. But this behavior is not guaranteed.
>>> 257 is 257
True # Yet the literal numbers compare properly
Well, this looks like your particular implementation of Python is trying to be smart and not creating redundantly valued integers in memory unless it has to. You seem to indicate you are using the referent implementation of Python, which is CPython. Good for CPython.
It might be even better if CPython could do this globally, if it could do so cheaply (as there would a cost in the lookup), perhaps another implementation might.
But as for impact on code, you should not care if an integer is a particular instance of an integer. You should only care what the value of that instance is, and you would use the normal comparison operators for that, i.e. ==.
What is does
is checks that the id of two objects are the same. In CPython, the id is the location in memory, but it could be some other uniquely identifying number in another implementation. To restate this with code:
>>> a is b
is the same as
>>> id(a) == id(b)
Why would we want to use is then?
This can be a very fast check relative to say, checking if two very long strings are equal in value. But since it applies to the uniqueness of the object, we thus have limited use-cases for it. In fact, we mostly want to use it to check for None, which is a singleton (a sole instance existing in one place in memory). We might create other singletons if there is potential to conflate them, which we might check with is, but these are relatively rare. Here's an example (will work in Python 2 and 3) e.g.
SENTINEL_SINGLETON = object() # this will only be created one time.
def foo(keyword_argument=None):
if keyword_argument is None:
print('no argument given to foo')
bar()
bar(keyword_argument)
bar('baz')
def bar(keyword_argument=SENTINEL_SINGLETON):
# SENTINEL_SINGLETON tells us if we were not passed anything
# as None is a legitimate potential argument we could get.
if keyword_argument is SENTINEL_SINGLETON:
print('no argument given to bar')
else:
print('argument to bar: {0}'.format(keyword_argument))
foo()
Which prints:
no argument given to foo
no argument given to bar
argument to bar: None
argument to bar: baz
And so we see, with is and a sentinel, we are able to differentiate between when bar is called with no arguments and when it is called with None. These are the primary use-cases for is - do not use it to test for equality of integers, strings, tuples, or other things like these.
I'm late but, you want some source with your answer? I'll try and word this in an introductory manner so more folks can follow along.
A good thing about CPython is that you can actually see the source for this. I'm going to use links for the 3.5 release, but finding the corresponding 2.x ones is trivial.
In CPython, the C-API function that handles creating a new int object is PyLong_FromLong(long v). The description for this function is:
The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers between -5 and 256, when you create an int in that range you actually just get back a reference to the existing object. So it should be possible to change the value of 1. I suspect the behaviour of Python in this case is undefined. :-)
(My italics)
Don't know about you but I see this and think: Let's find that array!
If you haven't fiddled with the C code implementing CPython you should; everything is pretty organized and readable. For our case, we need to look in the Objects subdirectory of the main source code directory tree.
PyLong_FromLong deals with long objects so it shouldn't be hard to deduce that we need to peek inside longobject.c. After looking inside you might think things are chaotic; they are, but fear not, the function we're looking for is chilling at line 230 waiting for us to check it out. It's a smallish function so the main body (excluding declarations) is easily pasted here:
PyObject *
PyLong_FromLong(long ival)
{
// omitting declarations
CHECK_SMALL_INT(ival);
if (ival < 0) {
/* negate: cant write this as abs_ival = -ival since that
invokes undefined behaviour when ival is LONG_MIN */
abs_ival = 0U-(unsigned long)ival;
sign = -1;
}
else {
abs_ival = (unsigned long)ival;
}
/* Fast path for single-digit ints */
if (!(abs_ival >> PyLong_SHIFT)) {
v = _PyLong_New(1);
if (v) {
Py_SIZE(v) = sign;
v->ob_digit[0] = Py_SAFE_DOWNCAST(
abs_ival, unsigned long, digit);
}
return (PyObject*)v;
}
Now, we're no C master-code-haxxorz but we're also not dumb, we can see that CHECK_SMALL_INT(ival); peeking at us all seductively; we can understand it has something to do with this. Let's check it out:
#define CHECK_SMALL_INT(ival) \
do if (-NSMALLNEGINTS <= ival && ival < NSMALLPOSINTS) { \
return get_small_int((sdigit)ival); \
} while(0)
So it's a macro that calls function get_small_int if the value ival satisfies the condition:
if (-NSMALLNEGINTS <= ival && ival < NSMALLPOSINTS)
So what are NSMALLNEGINTS and NSMALLPOSINTS? Macros! Here they are:
#ifndef NSMALLPOSINTS
#define NSMALLPOSINTS 257
#endif
#ifndef NSMALLNEGINTS
#define NSMALLNEGINTS 5
#endif
So our condition is if (-5 <= ival && ival < 257) call get_small_int.
Next let's look at get_small_int in all its glory (well, we'll just look at its body because that's where the interesting things are):
PyObject *v;
assert(-NSMALLNEGINTS <= ival && ival < NSMALLPOSINTS);
v = (PyObject *)&small_ints[ival + NSMALLNEGINTS];
Py_INCREF(v);
Okay, declare a PyObject, assert that the previous condition holds and execute the assignment:
v = (PyObject *)&small_ints[ival + NSMALLNEGINTS];
small_ints looks a lot like that array we've been searching for, and it is! We could've just read the damn documentation and we would've know all along!:
/* Small integers are preallocated in this array so that they
can be shared.
The integers that are preallocated are those in the range
-NSMALLNEGINTS (inclusive) to NSMALLPOSINTS (not inclusive).
*/
static PyLongObject small_ints[NSMALLNEGINTS + NSMALLPOSINTS];
So yup, this is our guy. When you want to create a new int in the range [NSMALLNEGINTS, NSMALLPOSINTS) you'll just get back a reference to an already existing object that has been preallocated.
Since the reference refers to the same object, issuing id() directly or checking for identity with is on it will return exactly the same thing.
But, when are they allocated??
During initialization in _PyLong_Init Python will gladly enter in a for loop to do this for you:
for (ival = -NSMALLNEGINTS; ival < NSMALLPOSINTS; ival++, v++) {
Check out the source to read the loop body!
I hope my explanation has made you C things clearly now (pun obviously intented).
But, 257 is 257? What's up?
This is actually easier to explain, and I have attempted to do so already; it's due to the fact that Python will execute this interactive statement as a single block:
>>> 257 is 257
During complilation of this statement, CPython will see that you have two matching literals and will use the same PyLongObject representing 257. You can see this if you do the compilation yourself and examine its contents:
>>> codeObj = compile("257 is 257", "blah!", "exec")
>>> codeObj.co_consts
(257, None)
When CPython does the operation, it's now just going to load the exact same object:
>>> import dis
>>> dis.dis(codeObj)
1 0 LOAD_CONST 0 (257) # dis
3 LOAD_CONST 0 (257) # dis again
6 COMPARE_OP 8 (is)
So is will return True.
It depends on whether you're looking to see if 2 things are equal, or the same object.
is checks to see if they are the same object, not just equal. The small ints are probably pointing to the same memory location for space efficiency
In [29]: a = 3
In [30]: b = 3
In [31]: id(a)
Out[31]: 500729144
In [32]: id(b)
Out[32]: 500729144
You should use == to compare equality of arbitrary objects. You can specify the behavior with the __eq__, and __ne__ attributes.
As you can check in source file intobject.c, Python caches small integers for efficiency. Every time you create a reference to a small integer, you are referring the cached small integer, not a new object. 257 is not an small integer, so it is calculated as a different object.
It is better to use == for that purpose.
I think your hypotheses is correct. Experiment with id (identity of object):
In [1]: id(255)
Out[1]: 146349024
In [2]: id(255)
Out[2]: 146349024
In [3]: id(257)
Out[3]: 146802752
In [4]: id(257)
Out[4]: 148993740
In [5]: a=255
In [6]: b=255
In [7]: c=257
In [8]: d=257
In [9]: id(a), id(b), id(c), id(d)
Out[9]: (146349024, 146349024, 146783024, 146804020)
It appears that numbers <= 255 are treated as literals and anything above is treated differently!
There's another issue that isn't pointed out in any of the existing answers. Python is allowed to merge any two immutable values, and pre-created small int values are not the only way this can happen. A Python implementation is never guaranteed to do this, but they all do it for more than just small ints.
For one thing, there are some other pre-created values, such as the empty tuple, str, and bytes, and some short strings (in CPython 3.6, it's the 256 single-character Latin-1 strings). For example:
>>> a = ()
>>> b = ()
>>> a is b
True
But also, even non-pre-created values can be identical. Consider these examples:
>>> c = 257
>>> d = 257
>>> c is d
False
>>> e, f = 258, 258
>>> e is f
True
And this isn't limited to int values:
>>> g, h = 42.23e100, 42.23e100
>>> g is h
True
Obviously, CPython doesn't come with a pre-created float value for 42.23e100. So, what's going on here?
The CPython compiler will merge constant values of some known-immutable types like int, float, str, bytes, in the same compilation unit. For a module, the whole module is a compilation unit, but at the interactive interpreter, each statement is a separate compilation unit. Since c and d are defined in separate statements, their values aren't merged. Since e and f are defined in the same statement, their values are merged.
You can see what's going on by disassembling the bytecode. Try defining a function that does e, f = 128, 128 and then calling dis.dis on it, and you'll see that there's a single constant value (128, 128)
>>> def f(): i, j = 258, 258
>>> dis.dis(f)
1 0 LOAD_CONST 2 ((128, 128))
2 UNPACK_SEQUENCE 2
4 STORE_FAST 0 (i)
6 STORE_FAST 1 (j)
8 LOAD_CONST 0 (None)
10 RETURN_VALUE
>>> f.__code__.co_consts
(None, 128, (128, 128))
>>> id(f.__code__.co_consts[1], f.__code__.co_consts[2][0], f.__code__.co_consts[2][1])
4305296480, 4305296480, 4305296480
You may notice that the compiler has stored 128 as a constant even though it's not actually used by the bytecode, which gives you an idea of how little optimization CPython's compiler does. Which means that (non-empty) tuples actually don't end up merged:
>>> k, l = (1, 2), (1, 2)
>>> k is l
False
Put that in a function, dis it, and look at the co_consts—there's a 1 and a 2, two (1, 2) tuples that share the same 1 and 2 but are not identical, and a ((1, 2), (1, 2)) tuple that has the two distinct equal tuples.
There's one more optimization that CPython does: string interning. Unlike compiler constant folding, this isn't restricted to source code literals:
>>> m = 'abc'
>>> n = 'abc'
>>> m is n
True
On the other hand, it is limited to the str type, and to strings of internal storage kind "ascii compact", "compact", or "legacy ready", and in many cases only "ascii compact" will get interned.
At any rate, the rules for what values must be, might be, or cannot be distinct vary from implementation to implementation, and between versions of the same implementation, and maybe even between runs of the same code on the same copy of the same implementation.
It can be worth learning the rules for one specific Python for the fun of it. But it's not worth relying on them in your code. The only safe rule is:
Do not write code that assumes two equal but separately-created immutable values are identical (don't use x is y, use x == y)
Do not write code that assumes two equal but separately-created immutable values are distinct (don't use x is not y, use x != y)
Or, in other words, only use is to test for the documented singletons (like None) or that are only created in one place in the code (like the _sentinel = object() idiom).
For immutable value objects, like ints, strings or datetimes, object identity is not especially useful. It's better to think about equality. Identity is essentially an implementation detail for value objects - since they're immutable, there's no effective difference between having multiple refs to the same object or multiple objects.
is is the identity equality operator (functioning like id(a) == id(b)); it's just that two equal numbers aren't necessarily the same object. For performance reasons some small integers happen to be memoized so they will tend to be the same (this can be done since they are immutable).
PHP's === operator, on the other hand, is described as checking equality and type: x == y and type(x) == type(y) as per Paulo Freitas' comment. This will suffice for common numbers, but differ from is for classes that define __eq__ in an absurd manner:
class Unequal:
def __eq__(self, other):
return False
PHP apparently allows the same thing for "built-in" classes (which I take to mean implemented at C level, not in PHP). A slightly less absurd use might be a timer object, which has a different value every time it's used as a number. Quite why you'd want to emulate Visual Basic's Now instead of showing that it is an evaluation with time.time() I don't know.
Greg Hewgill (OP) made one clarifying comment "My goal is to compare object identity, rather than equality of value. Except for numbers, where I want to treat object identity the same as equality of value."
This would have yet another answer, as we have to categorize things as numbers or not, to select whether we compare with == or is. CPython defines the number protocol, including PyNumber_Check, but this is not accessible from Python itself.
We could try to use isinstance with all the number types we know of, but this would inevitably be incomplete. The types module contains a StringTypes list but no NumberTypes. Since Python 2.6, the built in number classes have a base class numbers.Number, but it has the same problem:
import numpy, numbers
assert not issubclass(numpy.int16,numbers.Number)
assert issubclass(int,numbers.Number)
By the way, NumPy will produce separate instances of low numbers.
I don't actually know an answer to this variant of the question. I suppose one could theoretically use ctypes to call PyNumber_Check, but even that function has been debated, and it's certainly not portable. We'll just have to be less particular about what we test for now.
In the end, this issue stems from Python not originally having a type tree with predicates like Scheme's number?, or Haskell's type class Num. is checks object identity, not value equality. PHP has a colorful history as well, where === apparently behaves as is only on objects in PHP5, but not PHP4. Such are the growing pains of moving across languages (including versions of one).
It also happens with strings:
>>> s = b = 'somestr'
>>> s == b, s is b, id(s), id(b)
(True, True, 4555519392, 4555519392)
Now everything seems fine.
>>> s = 'somestr'
>>> b = 'somestr'
>>> s == b, s is b, id(s), id(b)
(True, True, 4555519392, 4555519392)
That's expected too.
>>> s1 = b1 = 'somestrdaasd ad ad asd as dasddsg,dlfg ,;dflg, dfg a'
>>> s1 == b1, s1 is b1, id(s1), id(b1)
(True, True, 4555308080, 4555308080)
>>> s1 = 'somestrdaasd ad ad asd as dasddsg,dlfg ,;dflg, dfg a'
>>> b1 = 'somestrdaasd ad ad asd as dasddsg,dlfg ,;dflg, dfg a'
>>> s1 == b1, s1 is b1, id(s1), id(b1)
(True, False, 4555308176, 4555308272)
Now that's unexpected.
What’s New In Python 3.8: Changes in Python behavior:
The compiler now produces a SyntaxWarning when identity checks (is and
is not) are used with certain types of literals (e.g. strings, ints).
These can often work by accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by
the language spec. The warning advises users to use equality tests (==
and !=) instead.

replace within boxed structure

I have the following (for example) data
'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
┌─┬─┬─┬─┬─┬─┐
│a│b│c│a│b│a│
└─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘
and I'd like to replace all 'a' with a number, 3, and 'b' with another number 4, and get back
┌─┬─┬─┬─┬─┬─┐
│3│4│c│3│4│3│
└─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘
how can I do that?
Thanks for help.
rplc
If that was a string (like 'abcaba') there would be the easy solution of rplc:
'abcaba' rplc 'a';'3';'b';'4'
34c343
amend }
If you need to have it like boxed data (if, for example, 'a' represents something more complex than a character or atom), then maybe you can use amend }:
L =: 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
p =: I. (<'a') = L NB. positions of 'a' in L
0 3 5
(<'3') p } L NB. 'amend' "3" on those positions
putting the above into a dyad:
f =: 4 :'({.x) (I.({:x) = y) } y' NB. amend '{.x' in positions where '{:x' = y
('3';'a') f L
┌─┬─┬─┬─┬─┬─┐
│3│b│c│3│b│3│
└─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘
which you can use in more complex settings:
]L =: (i.5);'abc';(i.3);'hello world';(<1;2)
┌─────────┬───┬─────┬───────────┬─────┐
│0 1 2 3 4│abc│0 1 2│hello world│┌─┬─┐│
│ │ │ │ ││1│2││
│ │ │ │ │└─┴─┘│
└─────────┴───┴─────┴───────────┴─────┘
((1;2);(i.3)) f L
┌─────────┬───┬─────┬───────────┬─────┐
│0 1 2 3 4│abc│┌─┬─┐│hello world│┌─┬─┐│
│ │ ││1│2││ ││1│2││
│ │ │└─┴─┘│ │└─┴─┘│
└─────────┴───┴─────┴───────────┴─────┘
btw, {.y is the first item of y; {:y is the last item of y
bottom line
Here's a little utility you can put in your toolbox:
tr =: dyad def '(y i.~ ({." 1 x),y) { ({:" 1 x) , y'
] MAP =: _2 ]\ 'a';3; 'b';4
+-+-+
|a|3|
+-+-+
|b|4|
+-+-+
MAP tr 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
+-+-+-+-+-+-+
|3|4|c|3|4|3|
+-+-+-+-+-+-+
just above the bottom line
The utility tr is a verb which takes two arguments (a dyad): the right argument is the target, and the left argument is the mapping table. The table must have two columns, and each row represents a single mapping. To make just a single replacement, a vector of two items is acceptable (i.e. 1D list instead of 2D table, so long as the list is two items long).
Note that the table must have the same datatype as the target (so, if you're replacing boxes, it must be a table of boxes; if characters, then a table of characters; numbers for numbers, etc).
And, since we're doing like-for-like mapping, the cells of the mapping table must have the same shape as the items of the target, so it's not suitable for tasks like string substitution, which may require shape-shifting. For example, ('pony';'horse') tr 'I want a pony for christmas' won't work (though, amusingly, 'pony horse' tr&.;: 'I want a pony for christmas' would, for reasons I won't get into).
way above the bottom line
There's no one, standard answer to your question. That said, there is a very common idiom to do translation (in the tr, or mapping 1:1, sense):
FROM =: ;: 'cat dog bird'
TO =: ;: 'tiger wolf pterodactyl'
input=: ;: 'cat bird dog bird bird cat'
(FROM i. input) { TO
+-----+-----------+----+-----------+-----------+-----+
|tiger|pterodactyl|wolf|pterodactyl|pterodactyl|tiger|
+-----+-----------+----+-----------+-----------+-----+
To break this down, the primitive i. is the lookup function and the primitive { is the selection function (mnemonic: i. gives you the *i*ndex of the elements you're looking for).
But the simplistic formulation above only applies when you want to replace literally everything in the input, and FROM is guaranteed to be total (i.e. the items of the input are constrained to whatever is in FROM).
These contraints make the simple formulation appropriate for tasks like case conversion of strings, where you want to replace all the letters, and we know the total universe of letters in advance (i.e. the alphabet is finite).
But what happens if we don't have a finite universe? What should we do with unrecognized items? Well, anything we want. This need for flexibility is the reason that there is no one, single translation function in J: instead, the language gives you the tools to craft a solution specific to your needs.
For example, one very common extension to the pattern above is the concept of substitution-with-default (for unrecognized items). And, because i. is defined to return 1+#input for items not found in the lookup, the extension is surprisingly simple: we just extend the replacement list by one item, i.e. just append the default!
DEFAULT =: <'yeti'
input=: ;: 'cat bird dog horse bird monkey cat iguana'
(FROM i. input) { TO,DEFAULT
+-----+-----------+----+----+-----------+----+-----+----+
|tiger|pterodactyl|wolf|yeti|pterodactyl|yeti|tiger|yeti|
+-----+-----------+----+----+-----------+----+-----+----+
Of course, this is destructive in the sense it's not invertible: it leaves no information about the input. Sometimes, as in your question, if you don't know how to replace something, it's best to leave it alone.
Again, this kind of extension is surprisingly simple, and, once you see it, obvious: you extend the lookup table by appending the input. That way, you're guaranteed to find all the items of the input. And replacement is similarly simple: you extend the replacement list by appending the input. So you end up replacing all unknown items with themselves.
( (FROM,input) i. input) { TO,input
+-----+-----------+----+-----+-----------+------+-----+------+
|tiger|pterodactyl|wolf|horse|pterodactyl|monkey|tiger|iguana|
+-----+-----------+----+-----+-----------+------+-----+------+
This is the strategy embodied in tr.
above the top line: an extension
BTW, when writing utilities like tr, J programmers will often consider the N-dimensional case, because that's the spirit of the language. As it stands, tr requires a 2-dimensional mapping table (and, by accident, will accept a 1-dimensional list of two items, which can be convenient). But there may come a day when we want to replace a plane inside a cube, or a cube inside a hypercube, etc (common in in business intelligence applications). We may wish to extend the utility to cover these cases, should they ever arise.
But how? Well, we know the mapping table must have at least two dimensions: one to hold multiple simultaneous substitutions, and another to hold the rules for replacement (i.e. one "row" per substition and two "columns" to identify an item and its replacement). The key here is that's all we need. To generalize tr, we merely need to say we don't care about what's beneath those dimensions. It could be a Nx2 table of single characters, or an Nx2 table of fixed-length strings, or an Nx2 table of matrices for some linear algebra purpose, or ... who cares? Not our problem. We only care about the frame, not the contents.
So let's say that, in tr:
NB. Original
tr =: dyad def '(y i.~ ({." 1 x),y) { ({:" 1 x) , y'
NB. New, laissez-faire definition
tr =: dyad def '(y i.~ ({."_1 x),y) { ({:"_1 x) , y'
A taxing change, as you can see ;). Less glibly: the rank operator " can take positive or negative arguments. A positive argument lets the verb address the content of its input, whereas a negative argument lets the verb address the frame of its input. Here, "1 (positive) applies {. to the rows of the x, whereas "_1 (negative) applies it to the the "rows" of x, where "rows" in scare-quotes simply means the items along the first dimension, even if they happen to be 37-dimensional hyperrectangles. Who cares?
Well, one guy cares. The original definition of tr let the laziest programmer write ('dog';'cat') tr ;: 'a dog makes the best pet' instead of (,:'dog';'cat') tr ;: 'a dog makes the best pet'. That is, the original tr (completely accidentally) allowed a simple list as a mapping table, which of course isn't a Nx2 table, even in an abstract, virtual sense (because it doesn't have at least two dimensions). Maybe we'd like to retain this convenience. If so, we'd have to promote degenerate arguments on the user's behalf:
tr =: dyad define
x=.,:^:(1=##$) x
(y i.~ ({."_1 x),y) { ({:"_1 x) , y
)
After all, laziness is a prime virtue of a programmer.
Here's the simplest way I can think of to accomplish what you have asked for:
(3;3;3;4;4) 0 3 5 1 4} 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
┌─┬─┬─┬─┬─┬─┐
│3│4│c│3│4│3│
└─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘
here's another approach
(<3) 0 3 5} (<4) 1 4} 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
┌─┬─┬─┬─┬─┬─┐
│3│4│c│3│4│3│
└─┴─┴─┴─┴─┴─┘
Hypothetically speaking, you might want to be generalizing this kind of expression, or you might want an alternative. I think the other posters here have pointed out ways of doing that. . But sometimes just seeing the simplest form can be interesting?
By the way, here's how I got my above indices (with some but not all of the irrelevancies removed):
I. (<'a') = 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
0 3 5
('a') =S:0 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
1 0 0 1 0 1
('a') -:S:0 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
1 0 0 1 0 1
I.('a') -:S:0 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
0 3 5
I.('b') -:S:0 'a';'b';'c';'a';'b';'a'
1 4

Haskell and Lambda-Calculus: Implementing Alpha-Congruence (Alpha-Equivalence)

I am implementing an impure untyped lambda-calculus interpreter in Haskell.
I'm presently stuck on implementing "alpha-congruence" (also called "alpha-equivalence" or "alpha-equality" in some textbooks). I want to be able to check whether two lambda-expressions are equal or not equal to each other. For example, if I enter the following expression into the interpreter it should yield True (\ is used to indicate the lambda symbol):
>\x.x == \y.y
True
The problem is understanding whether the following lambda-expressions are considered alpha-equivalent or not:
>\x.xy == \y.yx
???
>\x.yxy == \z.wzw
???
In the case of \x.xy == \y.yx I would guess that the answer is True. This is because \x.xy => \z.zy and \y.yx => \z.zy and the right-hand sides of both are equal (where the symbol => is used to denote alpha-reduction).
In the cae of \x.yxy == \z.wzw I would likewise guess that the answer is True. This is because \x.yxy => \a.yay and \z.wzw => \a.waw which (I think) are equal.
The trouble is that all of my textbooks' definitions state that only the names of the bound variables need to be changed for two lambda-expressions to be considered equal. It says nothing about the free variables in an expression needing to be renamed uniformly also. So even though y and w are both in their correct places in the lambda-expressions, how would the program "know" that the first y represents the first w and the second y represents the second w. I would need to be consistent about this in an implementation.
In short, how would I go about implementing an error-free version of a function isAlphaCongruent? What are the exact rules that I need to follow in order for this to work?
I would prefer to do this without using de Bruijn indices.
You are misunderstanding: different free variables are not alpha equivalent. So y /= x, and \w.wy /= \w.wx, and \x.xy /= \y.yx. Similarly, \x.yxy /= \z.wzw because y /= w.
Your book says nothing about free variables being allowed to be uniformly renamed because they are not allowed to be uniformly renamed.
(Think of it this way: if I haven't yet told you the definition of not and id, would you expect \x. not x and \x. id x to be equivalent? I sure hope not!)

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